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      83 83. Joint Declaration of the Rapporteurs (OSCE 2011).

      84 84. Bollinger (2010: 105).

      85 85. See Council of Europe (2018).

      86 86. Humphreys (1994).

      87 87. The Council of Europe has sought to ensure that traditional press and broadcasting are constrained by an effective media pluralism framework and encouraged member states to update the standards to take account of technological change. Zuboff (2019) sets out a critique of the data-driven business model of internet platforms. By controlling the ‘inputs’ of news and information, she argues, these can control the outputs – human choices and decision-making.

      88 88. Schulz and Held (2004).

      89 89. Livingstone (2009); De Zengotita (2005).

      90 90. Hallin and Mancini (2004).

      91 91. Hall and Taylor (1996).

      92 92. Oster (2015).

      93 93. See Anderson (2002).

      94 94. John Durham Peters (2005) adopted a similar approach.

      95 95. I use the term ‘ideal theory’ after John Rawls to describe an approach to theory that sets out a proposed normative framework given the assumption of relatively benign conditions. The aim is to resolve some of the apparent tensions in media freedom theory (definitions of media, institutional rights, positive rights vs negative and so on) by setting out workable compromises and standards to guide future policy.

      96 96. The punctuated equilibrium theory of policy change draws on institutional theory. See Baumgartner and Jones (1993).

      97 97. Starr (2004: 1–2, 71–7).

      98 98. Pickard (2015: 2, 229).