Foundations of Chemistry - Philippa B. Cranwell

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rel="nofollow" href="#ulink_3203b9c2-c5bb-51a9-a57d-a5330618c977">Figure 2.7 Salt, sodium chloride.Figure 2.8 (a) Formation of a single bond in hydrogen, H2; (b) an alternativ...Figure 2.9 (a) Formation of a double bond in oxygen, O2; (b) an alternative ...Figure 2.10 (a) Bonding in the ammonium ion, NH4+. Note: only outer‐shell el...Figure 2.11 (a) Bonding in diamond; (b) bonding in silicon dioxide; (c) two‐...Figure 2.12 Dot‐and‐cross diagram for beryllium chloride, BeCl2 showing two ...Figure 2.13 A linear centre in carbon dioxide, CO2.Figure 2.14 (a) Bonding in boron trichloride, BCl3 with a trigonal planar ce...Figure 2.15 (a) Bonding in C2H4, ethene with trigonal planar centre; (b) sho...Figure 2.16 (a) Bonding angles in a tetrahedral bonding centre; (b) bonding ...Figure 2.17 (a) Bonding angles in a trigonal bipyramidal molecule; (b) phosp...Figure 2.18 (a) Bonding angles in an octahedral molecule; (b) sulfur hexaflu...Figure 2.19 Common shapes of simple covalent molecules.Figure 2.20 Periodic table showing Pauling electronegativity of most of the ...Figure 2.21 (a) A pair of electrons shared evenly between two atoms with the...Figure 2.22 (a) A pair of electrons shared unevenly between two atoms with d...Figure 2.23 Polar covalent bonds in (a) hydrogen chloride, HCl and (b) carbo...Figure 2.24 Hydrogen chloride molecule showing the charge separation and dir...Figure 2.25 Chloromethane, CH3Cl, is a polar molecule.Figure 2.26 Carbon dioxide has polar bonds but no overall dipole moment.Figure 2.27 (a) Overall molecular dipole in fluoromethane; (b) overall molec...Figure 2.28 Comparison of inter‐ and intramolecular forces.Figure 2.29 Permanent dipoles in the hydrogen chloride molecule and resultan...Figure 2.30 (a) Chlorine molecule with even distribution of charge; (b) Chlo...Figure 2.31 (a) Helium atom (Z = 2) showing even distribution of electrons; ...Figure 2.32 (a) Formation of a hydrogen bond between two molecules of water ...Figure 2.33 (a) Hydrogen bonding between two ethanol, C2H5OH, molecules; (b)...

      4 Chapter 3Figure 3.1 The same number of different types of fruit have different masses...Figure 3.2 A solute and a solvent are combined to form a solution.

      5 Chapter 4Figure 4.1 Molecules of water in the solid, liquid, and gas states.Figure 4.2 The change in state from solid to liquid and then to gas for wate...Figure 4.3 Metallic bonding in sodium.Figure 4.4 Ionic lattices. (a) Sodium chloride, NaCl.(b) Calcium fluorid...Figure 4.5 Space‐filling diagram for sodium chloride showing space occupied ...Figure 4.6 (a) The structure of graphite.(b) The structure of diamond. (...Figure 4.7 Movement of molecules from a liquid in a closed container. (a) Th...Figure 4.8 Comparison of boiling points in (Z)‐ and (E)‐dichloroethene.Figure 4.9 Comparison of boiling points of n‐hexane and 2,2‐dimethylbutane....Figure 4.10 Hydrogen bonding between water molecules.Figure 4.11 Group 6 (16) hydrides.Figure 4.12 Boiling points of hydrides of Groups 4 (14), 5 (15), 6 (16), and...Figure 4.13 Ice crystals.Figure 4.14 Coastal regions are kept cool by the high heat capacity of water...Figure 4.15 Hydrogen bonding between base pairs in DNA.Figure 4.16 Boyle's law states that the volume of a gas is inversely proport...Figure 4.17 Charles's law states that as the temperature of a fixed number o...Figure 4.18 The large cube has a volume of 1 m3. The sides of the small cube...Figure 4.19 The Celsius and Kelvin temperature scales.

      6 Chapter 5Figure 5.1 Electron arrangements in a Mg atom and Mg2+ ion.Figure 5.2 Electron arrangements in an O atom and O2− ion.Figure 5.3 (a) The international pictogram for an oxidising agent; (b) safet...

      7 Chapter 6Figure 6.1 Fireworks release energy in the form of heat, light, and sound....Figure 6.2 Energy flow in exothermic and endothermic reactions.Figure 6.3 Reaction pathways for (a) an exothermic reaction; (b) an endother...Figure 6.4 A polystyrene cup and lid used as a calorimeter.Figure 6.5 Plot of temperature against time for a simple calorimeter, showin...Figure 6.6 Sodium chloride lattice dissolving in water.Figure 6.7 A simple flame calorimeter.Figure 6.8 A bomb calorimeter.Figure 6.9 Graphical representation of Hess's law. The enthalpy change for d...Figure 6.10 Hess's law cycle to determine the enthalpy of formation of C2H5O...Figure 6.11 Representation of the reaction between oxygen (1 mole) and hydro...Figure 6.12 Reaction pathway showing the energy of intermediates in the tran...Figure 6.13 General energy triangle used to calculate lattice enthalpy for a...Figure 6.14 General Born–Haber diagram for the calculation of lattice enthal...Figure 6.15 A Hess's law cycle to calculate the lattice enthalpy of formatio...Figure 6.16 Born–Haber diagram for calculating the lattice enthalpy of forma...Figure 6.17 Born–Haber cycle for calculating the lattice enthalpy of formati...Figure 6.18 The charge density on a Li+ ion is greater than that on a larger...Figure 6.19 (a) Lattice enthalpy of formation for Group 1 chlorides; (b) lat...Figure 6.20 Polarisation of an anion (−ve) by a small, highly charged cation...Figure 6.21 Sherbet Fountain is composed of citric acid and sodium hydrogen ...Figure 6.22 A student bedroom tends to a maximum state of disorder and maxim...

      8 Chapter 7Figure 7.1 The rates of the forward and backward reactions are equal once th...Figure 7.2 Plot of concentrations of reactants (A and B) and products (C and...Figure 7.3 Effect of changing the external pressure on the dinitrogen tetrox...Figure 7.4 The N2O4 ⇌ 2NO2 equilibrium at different temperatures. An increas...Figure 7.5 The pH scale showing the typical colour of universal indicator in...Figure 7.6 Using a pH meter to measure hydrogen ion concentration.Figure 7.7 Titration apparatus.Figure 7.8 Plot of pH change in the titration of a strong acid against a str...Figure 7.9 Colour changes of some common indicators.Figure 7.10 Plot of pH against volume of acid in a titration of a strong aci...Figure 7.11 Plot of pH against volume of acid in a titration of a weak acid ...Figure 7.12 Plot of pH against volume of base in a titration of a strong aci...Figure 7.13 Plot of pH against volume of acid in a titration of a weak acid ...

      9 Chapter 8Figure 8.1 Plot of the concentration of A and B against time for the reactio...Figure 8.2 Apparatus to measure the amount of gas produced in a reaction ove...Figure 8.3 The reaction of NO2 with F2: (a) successful collision leading to ...Figure 8.4 Energy profile for an exothermic reaction.Figure 8.5 Boltzmann distribution of molecular energies.Figure 8.6 Boltzmann distribution of molecular energies at two different tem...Figure 8.7 Energy profile for a catalysed (red) and uncatalysed (blue) react...Figure 8.8 Plot of concentration of reactant A against time.Figure 8.9 Plot of [Br2] against time with a tangent drawn at t = 150 second...Figure 8.10 Plot of rate against concentration of Br2.Figure 8.11

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