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of what kind of housing people lived in. Peasants had their lands redistributed and city workers had apartments and sets of rooms reallocated and reassigned.

      Despite this, ‘knowledge elements’ were important to the new China, as engineers, medical practitioners, and planners. In terms of the social background of its leadership, the CPC was from humble stock. But now that it was in government, it needed those conversant in science, maths, and technology to be able to devise and implement its macro-economic and political plans. The issue with intellectuals, which would never be dispelled in the Maoist era, and lingers to this day, is that they were likely to be complicated in their private thoughts and allegiance. Some of them had studied abroad, in the pre-1949 period when young Chinese went to Japan, Europe, and the United States to study. Others were linked to family members who had fled with the Nationalists to Taiwan. Some were simply dissenters, aware of the creed of Marxism but also equipped to critique and doubt it. This group had to be reshaped somehow. ‘Thought reform’ was initially the means to do this.

      Alliance with the USSR was perhaps the most significant move that the PRC government made in international affairs at its foundation. ‘The [CPC’s] decision to ally with the Soviet Union was a major factor spreading Cold War conflict in East Asia,’ John Garver has written in a comprehensive diplomatic history of this period. ‘The PRC’s decision to ally with the Soviet Union had a profound impact on China’s foreign relations and on the entire world situation.’21 Dependence on Moscow for technical and financial assistance was one element of this. So was Mao’s quest to maintain the uniqueness and autonomy of the new country’s position. In many ways, the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence that Foreign Minister Zhou Enlai (1898–1976) announced at the conference in Bandung, Indonesia, in 1955, with their premium placed on non-interference in the affairs of others and respect for their sovereignty, were aimed at protecting the PRC as much from Russian influence as from that of the imperialist capitalist West.

      1 1. A. John Jowett, ‘Patterns of Literacy in the People’s Republic of China’, GeoJournal Vol. 18, No. 4 (June 1989), 417.

      2 2. Chinese National Bureau of Statistics, ‘Basic Statistics on National Population Census in 1953, 1964, 1982, 1990, 2000 and 2010’, http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjsj/Ndsj/2011/html/D0305e.htm.

      3 3. Barry Naughton, The Chinese Economy: Transitions and Growth (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2006), 50.

      4 4. Ibid., 51, 50.

      5 5. Jeremy Brown and Paul G. Pickowicz, ‘The Early Years of the People’s Republic

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