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and experts in the area of plastics testing but for the neophyte desiring to acquire a basic knowledge of the testing of plastics. It is for this reason that detailed discussions and excessive technical jargon have been avoided. The text is aimed at anyone involved in manufacturing, testing, studying, or developing plastics. It is my intention to appeal to a broad segment of people involved in the plastic industry.

In Chapter 1 the basic concepts of testing are discussed along with the purpose of specifications and standards. Also discussed is the basic specification format and classification system. The subsequent chapters deal with the testing of five basic properties: mechanical, thermal, electrical, weathering, and optical properties of plastics. The chapter on mechanical properties discusses in detail the basic stress–strain behavior of the plastic materials so that a clear understanding of testing procedures is obtained. Chapter 7 on material characterization is intended to present a general overview of the latest in characterization techniques in existence today. A brief explanation of the polymer combustion process along with various testing procedures are discussed in Chapter 8. An attempt is made to briefly explain the importance of conditioning procedures. A table summarizing the most common conditioning procedures should be valuable. Several tests that are difficult to incorporate into a specific category were placed in the chapter on miscellaneous tests. End‐product testing, an area generally neglected by the majority of processors of plastic products, is discussed along with some useful suggestions on common end‐product tests.

      Chapter 13 on identification analysis should be important to everyone involved in plastics and particularly useful to plastic converters and reprocessors. The flowchart summarizes the entire identification technique. Since there are so many different tests in existence on the testing of foam plastics, only a brief explanation of each test is given. The chapter on failure analysis is a compilation of methods commonly used by material suppliers. A step‐by‐step procedure for analyzing product failure should prove valuable to anyone ivolved in failure analysis. Quality control, although not part of the testing, is included in order to explain quality control as it relates to plastics. The section on visual standard, mold control, and workmanship standard is a good example. In this increasing world of product liability, the chapter on product liability and testing should be of value to everyone.

      In order to increase the versatility of this book and meet the goal of providing a ready reference on the subject of testing, a large appendix section is given. One will find very useful data: names and addresses of equipment manufacturers, a glossary, names and addresses of trade publications, information on independent testing laboratories, and a guide to plastics specifications. Many useful charts and tables are included in the appendix. Throughout the book, wherever possible, numerous diagrams, sketches, and actual photographs of equipment are given.

      A handbook of this magnitude must make inevitable compromises. Depending on the need of the individual user, there is bound to be a varying degree of excess and shortage. In spite of every effort made to minimize mistakes and other short‐comings in this book, some may still exist. For the sake of future refinement and improvements, all constructive comments will be welcomed and greatly appreciated.

      Vishu Shah

      Pomona, CaliforniaOctober 1983

      BIOGRAPHY OF VISHU SHAH

      Vishu Shah is President of Consultek Consulting Group, a fully integrated Management and Technical Consulting firm for the Plastics and Medical Industry with over a hundred years of combined hands‐on experience and a strong Plastics Engineering educational background. His 45 years of extensive practical experience in the Plastics Industry includes positions as president and co‐founder of Performance Engineered Products – a custom injection molder– and Senior Plastics Engineer for Rain Bird Corporation and Nibco Inc. His areas of expertise include product design, processing, automation, materials, rapid prototyping, tooling, failure analysis, and testing. He has taught various plastics‐related subjects throughout his career. Over 1000 professionals have benefited from the Plastics Engineering Certificate Program established in 2003 at Cal Poly, Pomona. An active involved professional, he is a senior member, past president of So. Cal. SPE section, SPE Honored Service Member, and a board member of SPI Western Moldmakers Division. Vishu is a graduate of UMass Lowell, where he received a B.S. and an M.S. degree in Plastics Engineering. He has worked extensively with the legal community as an expert witness and provided technical support with litigation.

ABOUT THE COMPANION WEBSITE

      Handbook of Plastics Testing and Failure Analysis is accompanied by a companion website:

       www.wiley.com/go/Shah/HB_PlasticsTestingFailureAnalysis

      The companion website page includes the following items:

       Problem‐Solution Manual with answers

       Color photographs that are included in the book as color inserts

       Color photographs not included in the book

       Appendix F with hyperlinks

       Appendix G with hyperlinks

       Links to the virtual lab tour

1 BASIC CONCEPTS AND ADVANCEMENT IN TESTING TECHNOLOGY

      1.1. BASIC CONCEPTS

      Not too long ago, the concept of testing was merely an afterthought of the procurement process. Now, however, with the advent of science and technology, the concept of testing is an integral part of research and development, product design, and manufacturing. The question that is often asked is, “why test?” The answer is simple. Times have changed. How we do things today is different. The emphasis is on automation, high production, and cost reduction. There is a growing demand for intricately shaped, high‐tolerance parts. Consumer awareness, a subject ignored by the manufacturers once upon a time, is now a major area of concern. Along with these requirements, our priorities have also changed. When designing a machine or a product, the priority in most cases is safety and health. Manufacturers and suppliers are now required to meet a variety of standards and specifications. Relying merely on experience and quality of workmanship is simply not enough. The following are some of the major reasons for testing:

      1 To prove design concepts

      2 To provide a basis for reliability

      3 Safety

      4 Protection against product liability lawsuits

      5 Quality control

      6 To meet standards and specifications

      7 To verify the manufacturing process

      8 To evaluate competitors’ products

      9 To establish a history for new materials

      In the last three decades, just about every manufacturer has turned to plastics to achieve cost reduction, automation, and high yield. The lack of history, along with the explosive growth and diversity of polymeric materials, has forced the plastics industry into placing extra emphasis on testing and on developing a wide variety of testing procedures. Through the painstaking efforts of various standards organizations, material suppliers, and mainly the numerous committees of the ASTM International (ASTM), over 10,000 different test methods have been developed. Globalization has also dramatically influenced test method development, specifically through ISO TC61 on Plastics.

      The need to develop standard test methods specifically designed for plastic materials originated for two main reasons. Initially, the properties of plastic materials were determined

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