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      In this chapter, we mainly focus on PPML and defense techniques against privacy and confidentiality violations in ML. Interested readers can refer to Barreno et al. [2006] for a more detailed explanation of secure ML.

2.3 THREAT AND SECURITY MODELS

2.3.1 PRIVACY THREAT MODELS

      In order to preserve privacy and confidentiality in ML, it is important to understand the possible threat models. In ML tasks, the participants usually take up three different roles: (1) as the input party, e.g., the data owner; (2) as the computation party (e.g., the model builder and inference service provider); and (3) as the result party (e.g., the model querier and user) [Bogdanov et al., 2014].

      Attacks on ML may happen in any stage, including data publishing, model training, and model inference. Attribute-inference attacks can happen in the data publishing stage, where adversaries may attempt to de-anonymize or target data-record owners for malevolent purposes. The attacks during ML model training are called reconstruction attacks, where the computation party aims to reconstruct the raw data of the data providers or to learn more information about the data providers than what the model builders intend to reveal.

      For federated learning, reconstruction attacks are the major privacy concerns. In the inference phase of ML models, an adversarial result party may conduct reconstruction attack, model inversion attacks, or membership-inference attacks, using reverse engineering techniques to gain extra information about the model or raw training data.

      Reconstruction Attacks. In reconstruction attacks, the adversary’s goal is to extract the training data or feature vectors of the training data during ML model training or model inference. In centralized learning, raw data from different data parties are uploaded to the computation party, which makes the data vulnerable to adversaries, such as a malicious computation party. Large companies may collect raw data from users to train an ML model. However, the collected data may be used for other purposes or sent to a third-party without informed consent from the users. In federated learning, each participating party carries out ML model training using their local data. Only the model weight updates or gradient information are shared with other parties. However, the gradient information may also be leveraged to reveal extra information about the training data [Aono et al., 2018]. Plain-text gradient updating may also violate privacy in some application scenarios. To resist reconstruction attacks, ML models that store explicit feature values such as support vector machine (SVM) and k-nearest neighbors (kNN) should be avoided. During model training, secure multi-party computation (MPC) [Yao, 1982] and homomorphic encryption (HE) [Rivest et al., 1978] can be used to defend against such attacks by keeping the intermediate values private. During model inference, the party computing the inference result should only be granted black-box access to the model. MPC and HE can be leveraged to protect the privacy of the user query during model inference. MPC, HE, and their corresponding applications in PPML will be introduced in Sections 2.4.1 and 2.4.2, respectively.

      Model Inversion Attacks. In model inversion attacks, the adversary is assumed to have either white-box access or black-box access to the model. For the case of white-box access, the adversary knows the clear-text model without stored feature vectors. For the case of black-box access, the adversary can only query the model with data and collect the responses. The adversary’s target is to extract the training data or feature vectors of the training data from the model. The black-box access adversary may also reconstruct the clear-text model from the response by conducting an equation solving attack. Theoretically, for an N-dimensional linear model, an adversary can steal it with N + 1 queries. Such a problem can be formalized as solving θ from (x, hθ(x)). The adversary can also learn a similar model using the query-response pairs to simulate the original model. To resist model inversion attacks, less knowledge of the model should be exposed to the adversary. The access to model should be limited to black-box access, and the output should be limited as well. There are several strategies proposed to reduce the success rate of model inversion attack. Fredrikson et al. [2015] choose to report only rounded confidence values. Al-Rubaie and Chang [2016] take the predicted class labels as response, and the aggregated prediction results of multiple testing instances are returned to further enhance model protection. Bayesian neural networks combined with homomorphic encryption have been developed [Xie et al., 2019], to resist such attacks during secure neural network inference.

      Membership-Inference Attacks. In membership-inference attacks, the adversary has black-box access to a model, as well as a certain sample, as its knowledge. The adversary’s target is to learn if the sample is inside the training set of the model. The adversary infers whether a sample belongs to the training set or not based on the ML model output. The adversary conducts such attacks by finding and leveraging the differences in the model predictions on the samples belonging to the training set vs. other samples. Defense techniques that are proposed to resist model inversion attacks, such as result generalization by reporting rounded prediction results are shown to be effective to thwart such attacks [Shokri et al., 2017]. Differential privacy (DP) [Dwork et al., 2006] is a major approach to resist membership inference attacks, which will be introduced in Section 2.4.3.

      Attribute-Inference Attacks. In attribute-inference attacks, the adversary tries to de-anonymize or target record owners for malevolent purpose. Anonymization by removing personally identifiable information (PII) (also known as sensitive features), such as user IDs and names, before data publishing appears to be a natural approach for protecting user privacy. However, it has been shown to be ineffective. For example, Netflix, the world’s largest online movie rental service provider, released a movie rating dataset, which contains anonymous movie ratings from 500,000 subscribers. Despite anonymization, Narayanan and Shmatikov [2008] managed to leverage this dataset along with the Internet Movie Database (IMDB) as background knowledge to re-identify the Netflix users in the records, and further managed to deduce the user’s apparent political preferences. This incident shows that anonymization fails in the face of strong adversaries with access to alternative background knowledge. To deal with attribute-inference attacks, group anonymization privacy approaches have been proposed in Mendes and Vilela [2017]. Privacy preservation in group anonymization privacy is achieved via generalization and suppression mechanisms.

      Model Poisoning

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