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teacher for clarification of policy regarding their use.

      At what age should children use calculators instead of mental or written arithmetic?

      This is a good question and one that is at the centre of much controversy. In Britain, a report commissioned by the government discourages the use of calculators in mathematics instruction for children through to the age of eleven. In fact, the final report, in response to widespread criticism, does ameliorate this advice, but still espouses little or no use of calculators until the later years of primary school.

      Educators, apart from those teaching maths, appear very reluctant to encourage young children to use calculators, supporting a ‘back to basics’ approach. Strangely, though, computer use is encouraged, which seems rather contradictory. Calculators are always used in professional settings, just as computers are, and there is unlikely to be any assertion that the users are somehow less able because they are not working out figures with a pencil and paper. A strong body of research suggests that using pencil-and-paper methods alongside teaching the appropriate use of a calculator, is the most effective way to teach maths to children of all ages. After all, a child must know how to work out a problem or a function before it can be undertaken on a calculator, which means that the calculator is just a tool to gain a result rather than a replacement for knowledge. It’s also a good tool for checking mental arithmetic or pencil-and-paper work for accuracy.

      If calculators are used by your child’s school as part of maths study, you are within your rights to question the theory behind their use, and when they should be used. But rest assured that most research points to the idea that calculators can enhance an understanding of maths rather than undermine it.

Cars

      When can my son learn to drive?

      Your son can learn to drive when he is seventeen and in possession of a provisional driving licence. He will have to be accompanied by a licenced driver over the age of eighteen until he passes his driving test, after which he can drive alone legally.

      Driving ages vary around the world, ranging from seventeen to eighteen in most European countries (sixteen on the Isle of Man), to sixteen in Canada, fifteen in New Zealand and South Africa, and even fourteen for learners in some states in the US (although you normally have to be sixteen to pass a driving test and get a full licence).

      Your child can use an electrically assisted pedal cycle at fourteen, and drive a moped, a small agricultural tractor or a small mowing machine at sixteen. Disabled teenagers can often be allowed to drive at age sixteen, rather than waiting until seventeen.

      My daughter falls below the height restrictions for doing without a car booster seat. Does she need to use one?

      You are referring to a new UK law, which applies to children over the age of three and up to either 1.35 m (4 ft 6 in) in height or the age of twelve. So if your daughter is eleven and small for her age (under the requisite height), she will need to use a car booster seat. Not surprisingly, this may be a huge source of embarrassment to her. You may help to ease the blow by covering a regulation booster seat with a trendy fabric, applying stickers or even hiding it beneath a car blanket. Explain the reasons for the law (safety, obviously), and that you are powerless to do much about it. Encourage her to say that she feels more comfortable being higher up and that the seat belt fits better. In other words, give her lots of comeback if she feels that she might be teased.

      When should I allow my son to drive on his own after getting his licence?

      Legally, he can start the moment he gets his licence, whether you approve or not. You can, however, help to make sure that he develops safe and responsible driving skills. First of all, don’t palm off all the driving lessons on to a professional. Get involved as much as you can, even if it causes your hair to turn white! What’s more, when your child is a passenger in your car, drive safely and carefully, and point out why you do things a certain way.

      

Children often copy parental driving habits. If you don’t obey traffic laws, wear your seat belt, keep your cool in traffic, drive within speed limits or stay off your mobile phone when behind the wheel, they won’t either.

      

Teach your child about driving and the technology behind it. Show him the proper sitting distance from a steering wheel or an airbag. Point out what to look for – traffic signs, bad drivers, emergencies and more, as you drive with him.

      

Give your teen as much supervised practice as possible on different types of roads, in all weather conditions and in all kinds of driving conditions, even after your teen receives a licence. The more supervised practice he gets, the less likely he is to be involved in an accident.

      

If your child is using the family car, you can certainly set some limitations (no motorway or night-time driving for a few months; see page), and no giving lifts to scores of friends, who can be a great distraction to a new driver. Say, perhaps, that you are happy for him to have some freedom in the car, but on condition that he drives with you occasionally to hone his skills. One study found that teens with lenient parental driving restrictions are likely to have more traffic violations and crashes. Make clear, too, your expectations – driving within the speed limit, within certain geographical distances, with no more than, say, two friends, at certain times of day, and never after drinking or taking drugs. Even one drink can blur the reactions of an inexperienced driver. They must be aware of this.

      

Don’t rush it. Many new drivers are nervous and require a bit more practice, even if they sailed through their tests. Parents often rush the licencing process for their teens to free up their own time and to encourage their teens to run errands for them. However, driver education alone does not give a young driver the necessary experience behind the wheel. Remember, inexperience is the number one contributing factor to unsafe and potentially hazardous driving situations.

      When should I allow my son to drive on the motorway?

      When your son passes his driving test and gets his full licence, he can drive on the motorway legally. There have been calls to make motorway driving and night driving (see below) a part of the examination process, as many new drivers have never experienced motorway driving before their first solo trip. In fact, learner drivers are not permitted to drive on the motorway, which seems rather self-defeating and dangerous.

      It would be wise to have a few ‘motorway’ lessons with your new driver, with a little advance advice about speed, lane-changing, overtaking, using exits and slip roads, and then some practice time together. Agree on, say, four hours of supervised motorway driving before he does it on his own.

      In Northern Ireland, once you have passed your driving test, you must display ‘R’ plates at the front and back of the vehicle for one year. You must not exceed the speed of 45 mph, which effectively rules out motorway driving. This seems abundantly sensible, and could be implemented on an informal basis in your own household.

      Should I let my daughter drive alone at night when she’s just got her licence?

      Many novice drivers’ accidents happen at night and it is possible to pass the driving test without ever having driven in the dark. New drivers should practise driving in the dark with parents in much the same way that they learn motorway driving (see above). Encourage your child’s instructor to offer a few lessons at night, too, on a variety of different roads with different lighting. The more practice, the safer she’ll be.

      Can my child drive abroad?

      If he has a full Great Britain (GB) or Northern Ireland driving licence, he can drive in any Economic European Area (EEA) country on this licence. An International Driving

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