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      This approach aligns with Edward T. Hall's three levels of culture, outlined in The Dance of Life: The Other Dimension of Time.18 As you can see in the peach graphic, the outer skin represents the conscious or visible manifestations of culture, including literature, food, music, fashion, and art. These are often visible, such as the kimono in Japan, the sari in India or the hijab in Malaysia. The middle layer or flesh comprises norms and values that are often unknown to people outside that culture. Examples include authority, consensus, family, modesty, personal space, and spirituality.

      The innermost pit or stone represents the hidden or subconscious assumptions held by a culture about how the world works, such as fatalism, environmental control, and notions of time. Consider the analogy of a goldfish in water. That medium is pivotal to the way the goldfish lives and breathes until the water evaporates or the bowl breaks. This is similar to the culture shock that many experience when moving to a different culture.

      Let's now consider the less-than-desirable relationship J.B. has with his U.S. partners and contrast that with his more satisfactory dealings with the German company. How can this be, when you would expect there to be greater similarities between Germany and the U.S. than between Germany and India?

      Many factors are involved in business dealings with culturally different partners. One model was developed by Geert Hofstede, who, having analyzed cultural differences since the late 1960s, identified six “dimensions of national cultures,”19 three of which are especially pertinent to the J.B. example.

      The first of these is what Hofstede identified as uncertainty avoidance, meaning the degree to which a culture is tolerant of ambiguity and feels comfortable with unknown situations. Ironically, the United States and India are closer to each other in terms of their comfort with uncertainty than either of them is with the Germans. However, as Hofstede explains, the Germans compensate for their desire to avoid uncertainty by relying on others' expertise. This aligns well with the Indian preference for power, another of Hofstede's dimensions. In India, power is unequally distributed throughout the culture, with the boss (J.B.) being the final decision maker. When the Germans asked J.B. if his suggestion was the best option, and he confirmed that it was, they accepted his opinion. The Germans were presumably able to reduce their level of uncertainty by giving credence to the power differential that J.B. is afforded in Indian society as the head of the company.

      The third relevant dimension to mention here is that of short-term or long-term orientation. Germany and the U.S. are both examples of the Western tendency for seeking results in the short-term. In comparison, many Asian cultures, such as India, prefer to take a long-term view. As one Indian executive explained:

      Again, why is there more alignment between the Indian and German executives, and more friction between J.B. and his U.S. partners? Perhaps because of J.B.'s industry experience and expertise, the Germans received assurance that their short-term needs would be met. Trust is highly relevant here. Former President Ronald Reagan's comment, “Trust but verify,” is anathema to Indians, who would not consider the need for verification to be indicative of trust.

      Why This? Why Now?

      Cultural considerations vary geographically in many countries. In the U.S., for example, conducting business in the Midwest is different from doing so in Texas or California. As the former CEO of

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