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      If we buy equity directly from the issuing company when it is first issued, we pay cash and receive goods (that is, a share certificate proving the equity entitlement). This is a regular spot trade with the extra consideration of dividends. If the company makes profits, it may decide to distribute them to its shareholders. The time of dividend payments is regular and predictable; the size of the payment is unknown and could sometimes be zero, so we depict it as a dotted line. Note that equity ownership has no maturity. Therefore the potential to receive dividends is everlasting unless the company closes or the shares are sold.

      If, on the other hand, we buy equity from a secondary source (such as somebody who bought it directly from the issuing company), the trade is a simple spot trade. Once we have done the trade, our counterparty has no further obligations. It is the purchaser's responsibility to inform the issuing company to transfer ownership in order to attend and vote at shareholder meetings and be able to claim dividends.

      There are a standard set of financial transactions where the underlying entity is equity. So we can buy futures, options and swaps on equities. These are described in this chapter for those products. The fact that the underlying entity is equity does not change the cashflows of these trades. The only difference is that at the end of, say, a physical equity option, one may be left holding equity and at that point the dividend cashflows will apply. Whereas, had the option been on silver, one may be left holding silver and there would not be any dividends.

      3.8 Bond spot

      For a fuller description of bonds, see section 4.4. As for equity, we need to distinguish from whom we are buying the bond.

      If we buy it from someone other than the issuer, it is a standard spot trade. We receive a bond and can redeem the coupons on the bond for cash from the issuer (but not from the counterparty).

      We are therefore going to examine the cashflows when we purchase a bond directly from the issuer. The various parameters of a bond which determine the time and size of its cashflows are set by the issuer at the time of issuance. It is possible to create a huge variety of different bonds by varying these parameters, but there are some characteristics common to all bonds. If we purchase a bond, we give up some cash (the purchase price) and receive a financial instrument that obliges the issuer to pay us cash (by redemption of a coupon) at a time or various times in the future. Bonds have a:

We have restricted the illustration of cashflows to three common types: a fixed coupon bond (Figure 3.10), a floater (Figure 3.11), and a zero coupon bond (Figure 3.12).

Figure 3.10 Cashflows on fixed bond

Figure 3.11 Cashflows on floating bond

Figure 3.12 Cashflows on zero coupon bond

      Perhaps the simplest type of bond is one that pays fixed coupons. Here all the cashflows are known at the outset of the trade. We give the issuer the purchase price at the start of the trade and they pay fixed coupons at periodic intervals until the bond reaches maturity. At that time, they pay the last, fixed coupon plus the redemption amount which is set at 100 by convention.

      A floating coupon bond (also known as a floater) pays a coupon based on a reference entity. The coupon is fixed just prior to the due date in the same manner as swap fixings described above. Hence we know the time when coupons will be due, but we do not know the amounts until just before payment.

      A zero coupon bond pays no coupons. We pay the purchase price at the start and receive the redemption at the end so there are just two, fixed cashflows.

      3.9 Option

      Options are discussed in section 5.2. Here we shall discuss the cashflows related to the purchase of an option. Remember that the value of an option is very different from the cashflows. The value diagrams are also in section 5.2.

      The basic mechanics of purchasing an option are the payment of a fixed premium at the start of the trade and the possibility of a payout at some future time, depending on how market prices change relative to an agreed fixed price, known as the strike.

      A European option can, by definition, only be exercised at one time in the future. This means the time of the payout cashflow is known from the start. Whether there will be any payout at all and the size of the payout, cannot be known until the exercise date.

      American options can be exercised at any time up to the final exercise date (effectively the close of the trade). Therefore both the time and the size of the payout cashflow are completely unknown. The buyer can exercise at any time or not exercise at all.

Options can be either physical or cash. Figure 3.13 shows the payout in black, representing a physical return should the option be exercised. A cash option would calculate the value of the physical underlying entity at payout and convert that amount to cash, so nothing other than cash would be exchanged.

Figure 3.13 Cashflows on an American option trade

      Note that options can be applied to most asset classes. For example, a physical equity option, if exercised, would pay out in shares. A physical commodity option would pay out in some commodity, such as cocoa beans or palladium. This is a good example of how a financial product transcends the asset class and has the same features and cashflows across all asset classes.

      3.10 Credit default swap

      A credit default swap (CDS) is a contract between two parties referencing an entity or asset: a buyer of protection, also known as the seller of risk; and a seller of protection also called the buyer of risk.

      A simple example would be:

      JPMorgan buys protection from Banco Santander referencing

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