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      This portrait of the Roman Emperor Commodus shows him in the guise of Heracles, the great hero of myth. Commodus was one of the more deranged and tyrannical emperors, and one of his follies was to imagine himself as Heracles. He changed his name to Heracles Romanus and forced the Senate to declare him a god. This portrait is in some ways typical of the portraiture of the time. It shows the emperor as young and bearded, which was the standard style since Hadrian. His face is given a classicising, elegant appearance, yet the hooded eyes were particular to Commodus and show this to be, at least to some degree, a likeness. The emperor’s hair and beard have finely-drilled curls (see no. 137). Otherwise, however, the portrait is rather unusual. Commodus is draped in the lion skin worn by Heracles, held in place by the knotted front legs of the beast. He holds Heracles’ club in one hand, and the apples of the Hesperides, from the mythical labours of Heracles, in the other. Other than the lion skin, he is bare-chested, another sign of his supposed divinity.

      161. Anonymous. Man in Toga coming from Periate, c. 260–270 A.D. Bronze, 160 × 65 cm. Museo Arqueológico y Etnológico de Granada, Granada (Spain). Roman Antiquity.

      162. Anonymous. Portrait of Caius Julius Pacatianus, end of the 2nd century A.D. – beginning of the 3rd century A.D. Bronze, h: 210 cm. Musée des Beaux-Arts et d’Archéologie, Vienne (France). Roman Antiquity.

      Continuing the tradition established by the Etruscans many centuries earlier, this bronze portrait statue represents an elder male, perhaps a statesman. Most likely meant for display in family’s home, or villa, this piece commemorates the “pater familias,” or high-ranking male family member. By the third century, the toga, worn by this figure, was not generally a quotidian garment. Instead, it was worn for ceremonial purposes, and signified the citizenship and importance of the wearer.

      163. Anonymous. Venus of Nîmes, 3rd-4th century A.D. Marble. Musée archéologique, Nîmes (France). Roman Antiquity.

      164. Anonymous. The Pillar of St Landry: Goddess Holding a Torch, second half of the 2nd century A.D. Limestone. Musée national du Moyen Age – Thermes et hôtel de Cluny, Paris (France). Roman Antiquity.

      165. Anonymous. Nautes Pillar (discovered on the Ile de la Cité, Paris), 14–37 A.D. Stone, original height: more than 250 cm. Musée national du Moyen Age – Thermes et hôtel de Cluny, Paris (France). Roman Antiquity.

      This monument comes from Roman Gaul, from soon after the Romans had taken control of Paris. The pillar, dating to the early first century A.D. was originally erected in a Gallo-Roman temple. A Christian cathedral was built on the site in the sixth century, later replaced by the church of Notre-Dame de Paris. The broken pillar was found within the foundation of Notre-Dame. It speaks to the religious transformation that must have taken place after the Roman takeover of Gaul. It was dedicated to the Roman god Jupiter by Parisian sailors, but also included the names of gods of Gaul, demonstrating that worship of the old gods was still allowed under Roman rule. This remarkable work preserves not only early Gallo-Roman history, but also a non-imperial style of art that retained Celtic characteristics.

      166. Anonymous. Arch of Constantine, 312–315 A.D. Marble, 21 × 25.7 × 7.4 m. Rome (Italy). In situ. Roman Antiquity.

      Triumphal arches were erected throughout the course of the Roman empire, commemorating the achievements and victories of various emperors. The Arch of Constantine, an emperor famous for making Christianity the official religion of the late empire, is interesting because it re-used panels and figures from older Roman monuments. Such re-use is known as “spolia”.

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