LITMIR.BIZ

Figure 6.7 Endoscope options. Four different endoscopes can be used for lower endoscopy. Depicted here are: (A) adult colonoscope (13.2 mm diameter), (B) pediatric colonoscope (11.5 mm diameter), (C) sigmoidoscope (12.8 mm diameter), and (D) gastroscope (9.2 mm diameter). The diameter of the endoscope may vary slightly based on the manufacturer.

      Gastroscopes are also used in special circumstances for lower endoscopy. Because of their smaller caliber (9.2–9.8 mm diameter), gastroscopes are ideal for lower endoscopy of an ileostomy or in a patient with an ileoanal pouch. The smaller diameter is also useful in patients who have left‐sided colonic strictures (within reach of the shorter gastroscope) that prevent the passage of either of the larger colonoscopes. For routine colonoscopy, however, these scopes loop quite a bit due to their flexibility and their short length prevents them from reaching the cecum in most cases.

      Flexible sigmoidoscopes are useful if only the left colon is to be examined. Traditionally, this was the primary method for routine colon cancer screening when paired with testing such as a barium enema or fecal occult blood testing to screen the remaining colon for malignancies. For this purpose, however, colonoscopy has largely replaced flexible sigmoidoscopy (FS). FS is still useful in evaluating the severity of a flare of known ulcerative colitis, suspected ischemic or infectious colitis, to obtain colon biopsies in suspected microscopic colitis, or to evaluate radiographic abnormalities seen in the left colon.

      Learning when to use each scope is a skill that comes with guidance and experience and can vary from one individual to another. Just as a golfer learns which club he/she can use most effectively in given circumstances, the endoscopist too must develop an understanding of which scope they can best employ from one case to the next. When a particular type of scope is preferred for a procedure, trainees should get in the habit of including that request at the time of booking, to better ensure that it will be available in the endoscopy unit when it is time to perform the case.

      Sedation

      From the patient's perspective, sedation and analgesia are two of the most important issues linked to procedure satisfaction. Considering that success of colonoscopy as a screening exam relies on serial evaluations at least every 10 years, a patient's avoidance of pursuing repeat evaluations due to prior bad experiences can lead to potential premalignant lesions or other disease going undetected and advancing to more serious disease. Sedation, analgesia, and patient monitoring in endoscopy are covered in greater detail in another chapter of this text. In general, the use of a benzodiazepine (midazolam or diazepam) in combination with analgesia (meperidine or fentanyl) provides adequate conscious sedation for lower endoscopy. These agents work synergistically in providing sedation while the benzodiazepine provides an added amnestic effect. However, in some instances, deeper sedation may be needed. Propofol or even general anesthesia can be used for these patients.

      Indication/contraindications

      All trainees need a solid understanding as to when a colonoscopy should be performed, and perhaps more importantly when it should be avoided. One of the most common indications for a colonoscopy is as a screening exam for colorectal cancer. In the general population, these exams traditionally begin at the age of 50 years and if normal, every 10 years thereafter. In 2018, the American Cancer Society has recommended moving this initial screening to 45 years old, which may prompt other societies to follow suit. If a few small polyps are found on a screening exam, this surveillance interval is shortened to 3–5 years depending on the findings. Certain other indications, such as more numerous polyps, larger polyps, advanced dysplasia, villous architecture, or hereditary polyposis syndromes, can result in initiating early screening before the age of 50 or shorten the next interval even further to 1–3 years. In the case of particularly large or advanced polyps, a follow‐up examination in 3 months may be required to ensure complete resection of the lesion. Screening guidelines are frequently updated and every endoscopist must keep current with the most recent recommendations. These guidelines can typically be found online at professional society web sites such as the American Society for Gastrointestinal Endoscopy (ASGE), American College of Gastroenterology (ACG), or American Gastroenterology Association (AGA) [2, 3].

      Other indications for colonoscopic examination are primarily symptom driven. Of these, suspicion for GI bleeding (iron‐deficiency anemia, positive stool occult blood tests, or even frank hematochezia) is likely the most common cause for lower endoscopy [4]. A change in bowel habits (stool caliber, constipation, or chronic diarrhea), suspicion of inflammatory bowel disease, abdominal pain, and abnormal radiographic imaging studies are all common indications to pursue colonoscopy as well. Other less common causes include foreign body removal, volvulus reduction, or decompression of colonic pseudo‐obstruction.

      As stated earlier, there are times when it is not safe to proceed with colonoscopy. These include recent colon surgery, recent myocardial infarction (MI), the presence of severe colitis, supratherapeutic anticoagulation, or the presence of hemodynamic instability [4]. It is advised to delay colonoscopic exam for 3 months following colonic surgery, such as a new stoma or other colonic anastomosis. In the case of a recent MI, there are no specific guidelines regarding this. For elective procedures, one should wait until well after the event and base timing on the patient's clinical status. Emergent colonoscopy for gastrointestinal bleeding following an MI has been studied. Though there is roughly a ninefold increase in complications (9% vs. 1%), these complications are usually minor and generally the patients benefit more from the timely intervention of bleeding [5]. These are all relative contraindications and earlier exams can be performed if clinically required. In “severe” colitis (as can be associated with infections, Crohn's, ulcerative colitis, or ischemic colitis), it is generally advised to reduce the colonic inflammation before proceeding with endoscopy; however, limited exams can be indicated if the cause of colitis is unclear or to monitor the response to therapy. Mild to moderate colitis typically do not pose a contraindication to colonoscopy. For patients on anticoagulation therapy (such as warfarin, clopidogrel, or aspirin), institutions vary with the level of acceptable risk, but in general, low‐risk diagnostic exams can likely be safely performed on some level of therapeutic‐range anticoagulation [6]. Therapeutic measures (such as biopsy or polypectomy) may require lower anticoagulation thresholds or even discontinuation of therapy prior to colonoscopy for safety reasons. Endoscopy should be delayed if levels of anticoagulation are supratherapeutic. Trainees should read and remain current on published guidelines on the practice of endoscopy for patients taking anticoagulation medications, which are available online at www.asge.org.

      Early motor skills

      How to hold scope

The scope handle is held in the left hand with the umbilical cable that connects to the video processor resting between the thumb and index

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