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      2.3.13 Heart Sounds and Murmurs

      Apart from the normal first and second heart sounds, unusual third and fourth heart sounds are found in healthy as well as unhealthy individuals. The third heart sound, or ventricular gallop, is an additional unusual sound produced after the first and second heart sound. It is generated when a large amount of blood strikes the left ventricle and happens when the mitral valves open after the second heart sound, allowing passive blood flow to the left ventricle. The fourth heart sound, or atrial gallop, is a low-pitched sound that occurs before the first heart sound as the ventricle fills late in its diastole due to atrial contraction. The fourth heart sound results from vibrations produced within the ventricle, and it is also known as the atrial sound because its development requires an effective atrial contraction.

      Heart murmurs are the type of abnormal sound generated in the heart as a result of the turbulent flow of blood. These murmurs are generated either by blood flow through an abnormal valve or by abnormalities in the internal chamber of the heart. In most cases, the murmurs are not serious and do not require quick medication or a hospital visit. However, in a few cases, the abnormal murmurs are due to heart valve problems present at birth, or caused by cardiac shunts or septal defects.

      2.4 Evolution of the Devices for Conventional Clinical Cardiac Examination

      2.4.1 Stethoscope

      The evolution of the stethoscope is not limited simply to design and appearance, but involves functionality, accuracy, and outcome. The first stethoscope only allowed doctors to hear the pumping of the heart through one ear, whereas the binaural stethoscope design, allowed its users to hear and compare sounds of each bell. Then came the stethoscope with its classic design of two sides and one bell, which helped physicians use it for the respiratory and cardiovascular systems. After that, the diaphragm was introduced, helping to distinguish low-pitched and high-pitched sounds for accurate diagnosis.

      Figure 2.6 A digital stethoscope.

      2.4.2 Electrocardiogram

      The electrocardiogram machine initially had three electrodes forming a triangle. Two were later removed due to the poor yielding. The machine contained cylinders of an electrolyte solution and patients placed their arms and one leg inside these cylinders [18]. Examiners continued to use this machine until a new design was introduced in 1928 which was much lighter than the previous design and had five electrodes. Further improvements consisting of 12 electrodes were then made, giving more accurate measurements.

      Today, ECG systems are available in much smaller and portable forms, such as smartwatches, ECG patches, etc., which allow users to place their fingers on them to generate the ECG results within seconds.

      2.4.3 Echocardiogram (Ultrasound Devices)

      Figure 2.7 The echocardiography method. The patient lies in the left lateral decubitus position, and the ultrasound probe generates sound waves, receives an echo from body tissues, and sends the results to the ultrasound processing unit/computer to create a sonogram image.

      The echocardiogram

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