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      UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA PRESS

      PHILADELPHIA

      Copyright © 2014 University of Pennsylvania Press

      All rights reserved. Except for brief quotations used for purposes of review or scholarly citation, none of this book may be reproduced in any form by any means without written permission from the publisher.

      Published by

      University of Pennsylvania Press

      Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104-4112

       www.upenn.edu/pennpress

      Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper

      10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

       Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

      ISBN 978-0-8122-4638-4

       To the Silent Gardeners

      “The tree of humanity forgets the labour of the silent gardeners who sheltered it from the cold, watered it in time of drought, shielded it against wild animals; but it preserves faithfully the names mercilessly cut into its bark.”

      —Heinrich Heine, 1833, as quoted in Gross 1983: 323

      This book is dedicated to the billions of ordinary people, almost all of them nameless and forgotten, who domesticated rice, developed bread wheat, invented brewing, created soy sauce, tamed the dog, and otherwise discovered our foods, domesticated our crops, invented our basic food processing techniques, and created our basic food production systems—while their leaders, the famous kings and premiers and generals, waged war and massacred. The ordinary people of history gave us life while the leaders gave us death. It is the ordinary creative farmers and gatherers and food technicians who have won immortality. Their names are lost, but their true glory is deathless.

      “Let us now praise famous men….

      There be of them, that have left a name behind them, that their praises might be reported.

      And some there be, which have no memorial; who are perished, as though they had never been; and are become as though they had never been born; and their children after them.

      But these were merciful men, whose righteousness hath not been forgotten….

      Their seed shall remain for ever, and their glory shall not be blotted out.”

      —Ecclesiasticus 44: 1, 8–13

      CONTENTS

       Preface

       Usage

       Introduction

       Chapter 1. Prehistoric Origins Across Eurasia

       Chapter 2. China’s Early Agriculture

       Chapter 3. The Origins of Chinese Civilization

       Chapter 4. The Development of China’s Sustainability During Zhou and Han

       Chapter 5. Dynastic Consolidation Under Han

       Chapter 6. Foods from the West: Medieval China

       Chapter 7. The Mongols and the Yuan Dynasty

       Chapter 8. Shifting Grounds in Ming

       Chapter 9. Overview: Imperial China Managing Landscapes

       Appendix I. Conservation Among China’s Neighbors

       Appendix II. An Introduction to Central Asian Food

       Bibliography

       Index

      PREFACE

      This book covers the development of the Chinese food system from earliest times into the Ming Dynasty. Most attention is devoted to recent work on pre-dynastic China and on the Yuan Dynasty, since these are both key to the system and the subjects of recent major research. Considerations of space have made me leave most of Ming and all of Qing and postimperial China for other venues, but I provide conclusions about China’s food system at the end of imperial times in the early twentieth century, as well as a few comparisons with recent times. For notes on later times, see my website postings “Ming and Qing: Population and Agriculture” on late imperial food and science, “China’s Environmental Ruin” on contemporary mainland China, and “Chinese Food Updates” on contemporary food ethnography (www.krazykioti.com). These are works in progress, are not to be taken as final, and not to be cited without my permission.

      This book owes everything to Victor Mair, who expressed interest in my work and helped and encouraged at every stage. I also owe an enormous debt to my lifelong coworker Paul Buell, and to many friends and helpers in the world of Asian food, especially those who kept contact and remained encouraging during my long years away from China studies—including Jacqueline Newman, Charles Perry, Françoise Sabban, and others. Many more recent friends and fellow scholars have also helped with the enterprise, including Sidney Cheung, David Knechtges,

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