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reaction maximizes the hydrogen content of the synthesis gas, which consists primarily of hydrogen and carbon dioxide at this stage. The synthesis gas is then scrubbed of particulate matter and sulfur is removed via physical absorption (Speight, 2013, 2014a, 2017). The carbon dioxide is captured by physical absorption or a membrane and either vented or sequestered.

Thus, in the initial stages of gasification, the rising temperature of the feedstock initiates devolatilization and the breaking of weaker chemical bonds to yield volatile tar, volatile oil, phenol derivatives, and hydrocarbon gases. These products generally react further in the gaseous phase to form hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and carbon dioxide. The char (fixed carbon) that remains after devolatilization reacts with oxygen, steam, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen. Overall, the chemistry of gasification is complex but can be conveniently (and simply) represented by the following reactions:

      (2.1)

      (2.2)

      (2.3)

      (2.4)

      (2.5)

      (2.6)

      The designation C represents carbon in the original feedstock as well as carbon in the char formed by devolatilization of the feedstock. Reactions (2.1) and (2.2) are exothermic oxidation reactions and provide most of the energy required by the endothermic gasification reactions (2.3) and (2.4). The oxidation reactions occur very rapidly, completely consuming all of the oxygen present in the gasifier, so that most of the gasifier operates under reducing conditions. Reaction (2.5) is the water-gas shift reaction, in which water (steam) is converted to hydrogen – this reaction is used to alter the hydrogen/carbon monoxide ration when synthesis gas is the desired product, such as for use in Fischer-Tropsch processes. Reaction (2.6) is favored by high pressure and low temperature and is, thus, mainly important in lower temperature gasification systems. Methane formation is an exothermic reaction that does not consume oxygen and, therefore, increases the efficiency of the gasification process and the final heat content of the product gas. Overall, approximately 70% of the heating value of the product gas is associated with the carbon monoxide and hydrogen but this varies depending on the gasifier type and the process parameters (Speight, 2011a; Chadeesingh, 2011; Speight, 2013).

      In essence, the direction of the gasification process is subject to the constraints of thermodynamic equilibrium and variable reaction kinetics. The combustion reactions (reaction of the feedstock or char with oxygen) essentially go to completion. The thermodynamic equilibrium of the rest of the gasification reactions are relatively well defined and collectively have a major influence on thermal efficiency of the process as well as on the gas composition. Thus, thermodynamic data are useful for estimating key design parameters for a gasification process, such as: (i) calculating of the relative amounts of oxygen and/or steam required per unit of feedstock, (ii) estimating the composition of the produced synthesis gas, and (iii) optimizing process efficiency at various operating conditions.

      Other deductions concerning gasification process design and operations can also be derived from the thermodynamic understanding of its reactions. Examples include: (i) production of synthesis gas with low methane content at high temperature, which requires an amount of steam in excess of the stoichiometric requirement, (ii) gasification at high temperature, which increases oxygen consumption and decreases the overall process efficiency, (iii) production of synthesis gas with a high methane content, which requires operation at low temperature (approximately 700°C, 1290^oF) but the methanation reaction kinetics will be poor without the presence of a catalyst.

Relative to the thermodynamic understanding of the gasification process, the kinetic behavior is much more complex. In fact, very little reliable global kinetic information on gasification reactions exists, partly because it is highly dependent on (i) the chemical nature of the feed, which varies significantly with respect to composition, mineral impurities, (ii) feedstock reactivity, and (iii) process conditions. In addition, physical characteristics of the feedstock (or char) also play a role in phenomena such boundary layer diffusion, pore diffusion and ash layer diffusion which also influence the kinetic outcome. Furthermore, certain impurities, in fact, are known to have catalytic activity on some of the gasification reactions which can have further influence on the kinetic imprint of the gasification reactions.

      With some feedstocks, the higher the amounts of volatile material produced in the early stages of the process the higher the heat content of the product gas. In some cases, the highest gas quality may be produced at the lowest temperatures but when the temperature is too low, char oxidation reaction is suppressed and the overall heat content of the product gas is diminished. All such events serve to complicate the reaction rate and make derivative of a global kinetic relationship applicable to all types of feedstock subject to serious question and doubt.

      Depending on the type of feedstock being processed and the analysis of the gas product desired, pressure also plays a role in product definition. In fact, some (or all) of the following processing steps will be required: (i) pretreatment of the feedstock, (ii) primary gasification of the feedstock, (iii) secondary gasification of the carbonaceous residue from the primary gasifier; (iv) removal of carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, and other acid gases; (v) shift conversion for adjustment of the carbon monoxide/hydrogen mole ratio to the desired ratio; and (vi) catalytic methanation of the carbon monoxide/hydrogen mixture to form methane. If high heat-content (high-Btu) gas is desired, all of these processing steps are required since gasifiers do not typically yield methane in the significant concentration.

      2.5.5 Stage-by-Stage Chemistry

      Though there is a considerable overlap of the processes, each can be assumed to occupy a separate zone where fundamentally different chemical and thermal reactions take place. The gasification technology package consists of a fuel and ash handling system, gasification system – reactor, gas cooling and cleaning system. There are also auxiliary systems, namely the water treatment plant to meet the requirements of industry and pollution control board. The prime mover for power generation consists of either a diesel engine or a spark-ignited engine coupled to an alternator. In the case of a thermal system, the end use device is a standard industrial burner.

       2.5.5.1 Primary Gasification

      Primary gasification involves thermal decomposition of the raw feedstock via various chemical processes (Table 2.6) and many schemes involve pressures ranging from atmospheric to 1000 psi. Air or oxygen may be admitted to support combustion to provide the necessary heat. The product is usually a low heat content (low-Btu) gas ranging from a carbon monoxide/hydrogen mixture to mixtures containing varying amounts of carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen, water, methane, hydrogen sulfide, nitrogen, and typical tar-like products of thermal decomposition of carbonaceous feedstocks are complex mixtures and include hydrocarbon oils and phenolic products (Dutcher et al., 1983; Speight, 2011a, 2013, 2014b).

      Table 2.6 Types of reactions that occur in a gasifier.

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2 C + O2 → 2 CO

C + O2 → CO2

C + CO2 → 2 CO

CO + H2O → CO2 + H2 (shift reaction)

C + H2O → CO + H2 (water gas reaction)

C + 2 H2 → CH4