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in the National Response and National Disaster Recovery Frameworks. Some agencies explore the causes and consequences of disasters, while others concentrate attention on specific types of events. For instance, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) controls flight traffic before and after aviation accidents occur. The National Transportation and Safety Board (NTSB) investigates transportation accidents such as plane crashes. In fall 2001, a plane crashed in a residential neighborhood in New York. The NTSB traveled to the scene and determined that the accident was caused by turbulence. The Occupational Safety and Health Agency (OSHA) also probes the causes of accidents, but this organization looks more closely at injuries that result in the workplace. Another organization, the Chemical Safety Board, determines the source of industrial explosions that result from safety violations. The Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms (ATF) and Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) are additional federal agencies that are involved in investigation. After the bombing of the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma in 1995, the ATF and FBI were on the scene to determine what happened and decipher if it was an act of terrorism. The ATF and FBI also pursue and capture those who have violated laws relating to the possession of explosives and others who are considered suspected terrorists.

      Other federal groups are involved in a myriad of activities including hazard detection and warning, fraud deterrence and general oversight. The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) is one example. It helps predict volcanic eruptions and determine the location and magnitude of earthquakes. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Agency (NOAA) tracks hurricanes that form in the ocean and approach land. The

      National Weather Service (NWS) deals with warnings pertaining to thunderstorms, flooding, tornadoes, hail and other forms of severe weather. The Office of the Inspector General (IG) ensures that federal agencies and disaster victims are not misusing funds intended for disaster assistance.

      Besides government agencies, congressional representatives and senators often become involved in post‐disaster activities. These elected leaders bring visibility to disasters and attempt to acquire additional resources for victims and affected jurisdictions. After 9/11, for example, New York Senators Hillary Clinton and Charles Schumer gave several interviews about the needs of New York City and what assistance was still needed. Congressional representatives also help communities and states resolve problems made evident during response and recovery operations. Since Hurricane Katrina, congressional leaders from Louisiana have been determining how to improve their state’s response capabilities. They are also working on measures that would make New Orleans safer, such as strengthening the levees. Senators and House of Representatives members may also pass ad hoc legislation after a disaster to provide additional funding for disasters. An example of this is the Corona Virus, Relief and Economic Security (CARES) Act. This law provided trillions of dollars to reduce the spread of Covid‐19, support health care providers and provide a stimulus to Americans who had lost incomes due to the shutdown of the economy. Of course, the President is also of paramount importance in approving legislation that proposed to shape disaster response and recovery operations. The President plays an pivotal role in affirming relief assistance for disaster affected communities. The large number of agencies and officials involved in disaster response and recovery operations indicates that the federal government is a major player in emergency management activities.

      For Example

       FEMA AmeriCorps Teams

In September 2013, heavy rains caused flooding over 2,000 square miles in 17 Colorado counties. Over 15,000 homes were damaged and nearly 2,000 homes were completely destroyed. To address the needs of disaster victims, FEMA deployed 30 AmeriCorps Teams (which are affiliated with the U.S. Corporation for National and Community Service). These groups, comprised of over 240 members, included recent college graduates who want to make a difference while gaining additional experience and credentials. The young, energetic individuals performed a variety of tasks including mass care, assistance at evacuation sites and sheltering locations, and donation staging and distribution. They also mudded and gutted flooded homes and moved over 1.2 million pounds of furniture. The involvement of AmeriCorps cuts federal disaster costs and helps thousands of victims in need (Figure 2‐5).

Figure 2‐5 FEMA Corps members arriving in Jamestown, CO, on October 2, 2013. These government representatives went door to door to make sure residents were aware of the availability of federal disaster assistance. Michael Rieger/FEMA.

      2.1.5 Tribal Government

In addition to local, state and federal government entities, there are also tribal governments that are involved in emergency management. A tribal government is “an Indian or Alaska Native tribe that the Secretary of the Interior acknowledges to exist as an Indian tribe pursuant to the Federally Recognized Indian Tribe List Act of 1994” (FEMA 2012). In the United States, there are 564 federally recognized tribes, and they have their own unique history, customs, language and laws. Furthermore, each tribe has a unique relationship to the federal government. On the one hand, each Indian Tribe is considered an independent nation. Indian tribes are, in essence, a separate country within the boundaries of U.S. territory. On the other hand, the Indian tribe is somewhat like a state in that it may now receive funding directly from the federal government. In other words, federal emergency management assistance can now bypass the state in which the tribe resides and go directly to those affected by a disaster. Some tribal governments therefore have more developed emergency management programs than others. Those working in emergency management should make extra efforts to work with Indian tribes, based on the tribe’s level of interest and needs. Julie Maldonado of the Livelihoods Knowledge Exchange Network reminds us of an important point and principle: Indian Tribes are not necessarily “stakeholders;” they are more appropriately recognized as “rights holders.” This suggests that Indian Tribes have autonomy and sovereignty in controlling their land and self‐determination. Those working in emergency management should remember this essential admonition.

      For Example

       Tribal Governments and Federal Aid

      The Sandy Recovery Improvement Act of 2013 (SRIA) amended the Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Act (Stafford Act) so federally recognized Indian tribal governments have the option to request a presidential emergency through normal channels or make major disaster declarations independently of the state in which they reside. A chief executive of a federally recognized tribal government may request that the president declare an emergency or major disaster for the tribal government or consider it as part of a state’s declaration request.

      Self‐Check

       What are the different sectors that are involved in disaster response and recovery?

       What does the local government do when disaster strikes?

       How can the state help the emergency manager deal with disaster?

       Why is the federal government a major player in recovery operations?

       What are the major agencies involved in the National Response Framework and the National Disaster Recovery Framework?

       What makes tribal government unique from federal and state governments?

2.2 The Private Sector

As an emergency manager, you should understand that businesses will be affected by disasters and that they will consequently be involved in response and recovery operations (Flynn 2007; Webb, Tierney and Dahlhamer 2000). Naturally, the first priority of any business

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