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gather information about needs and track expenses so payments can be made. Their contributions are crucial during post‐disaster operations. Emergency managers are in many ways like the hub in a wheel that has spokes. They are central to the coordination of emergency management activities before, during and after disasters. This metaphor is not meant to denigrate the contributions or others or underestimate the complexity of post‐disaster operations, however. Because, in some ways, emergency managers are just one element of a very complicated response and recovery network.

      A collection of other departments likewise plays vital roles after disasters, and knowledgeable emergency management personnel are keenly aware of this fact. Public Works reestablishes public utilities such as water and they also manage issues related to sewage, streets and engineering. This department may also clean up disaster debris from public areas (e.g., government land, government office buildings, and parks). The Department of Transportation assists with evacuation and removes debris from roads. This department makes repairs to signal lights and reconstructs damaged roads and bridges. Parks and Recreation has the specific responsibility of caring for its own facilities. However, it is a great asset in disasters as it shares personnel as well as trucks and equipment to other departments for transportation assistance or debris removal. Public Health is in charge of caring for victims who have been infected by disease outbreaks or impacted by a biological terrorist attack. Public Health may also be involved in the health concerns related to natural or technological disasters, and it interacts frequently with hospitals to track patient bed availability. Public Health also issues orders to isolate patients when diseases spread. If there is not a Mental Health Department in the city, Public Health also counsels those who have been affected emotionally by the disaster.

There are many others that are involved in disasters at the local level. The coroner is responsible for gathering, storing and identifying bodies of the deceased. He or she also releases the remains to family members and funeral homes so burial or cremation may take place. The Engineering Department inspects buildings to determine if they are habitable or if they should be condemned. This department also promotes more stringent building codes before reconstruction can begin. Government officials work with The Chamber of Commerce to identify the financial impact of disaster. It helps companies resume normal activities by representing their interests during recovery. The Department of Housing tells tenants if homes and apartments can be occupied after a disaster. This entity also facilitates the building of new housing during recovery. Development and redevelopment agencies may work with Public Works, the Engineering Department, the Chamber of Commerce, and the Housing Department to make recovery decisions, rebuild urban areas, and implement more stringent mitigation measures. As an example, the New Jersey Economic Development Authority has been heavily involved in guiding recovery after Hurricane Sandy.

Elected civic leaders are also logically involved in post‐disaster operations (Figure 2‐1). Mayors declare emergencies and disasters, which is necessary if outside assistance is to be sought and obtained. These politicians work closely with city managers, city council members, emergency managers, and public information officers (PIOs) to establish priorities after a disaster, mobilize personnel and resources, and keep the public informed about ongoing response and recovery activities. Such politicians play a key role in the most important post‐disaster decisions.

Although many cities and their personnel operate as described, it must be reiterated that no two communities are organized exactly alike. Some cities may rely on private ambulance companies but may have a dedicated emergency manager. Others may have volunteer firefighters and no emergency manager. In different jurisdictions, government departments may be organized in diverse ways, and this would require that they have distinct disaster responsibilities. For instance, in some cases, emergency managers are located in the fire department, police department or public works. In other situations, the emergency management office is independent or reports directly to the city manager. At other times, the Building Department and Public Works may be combined. It is therefore imperative that you understand your city organization and that of nearby jurisdictions. This will undoubtedly be useful if you are to harness local public resources after disasters.

Figure 2‐1 Elective officials such as Freeport, NY Mayor, Andrew Hardwick, often meet with community members to discuss ongoing response and recovery efforts. Andrew Booher/FEMA.

      2.1.2 County and Regional Governments

      County/parish governments and regional governments are also heavily involved in pre‐ and post‐disaster operations (Clarke 2006). Counties or parishes may have their own emergency management offices, and their employees often work with their peers at the municipal level. County/parish emergency management offices are typically responsible for unincorporated areas also. They generally have supplementary resources that can be deployed when disasters prove to be too much for local governments. In this case, a county judge or commissioner (or parish president in the State of Louisiana) may also declare a disaster and work with state and federal governments to acquire disaster assistance. In fact, presidentially declared disasters (those requiring federal assistance) are always initiated at the county level before they make their way up through the state emergency management system.

      Those involved in emergency management at the county‐level work perform a variety of disaster functions. The sheriff’s office may help with traffic control or other law enforcement duties after disasters. The Geographic Information Systems Department plots the location of resources when emergency management activities are undertaken. Public Health provides health services after all types of disasters, and they are key players in the distribution of medicines or vaccines to affected communities. The County Economic Development Department performs vital work during recovery. These county entities cooperate with other agencies at the municipal level and often cover unincorporated areas to ensure disaster funds are distributed and spent according to federal policy and regulations. Again, it is worth repeating, that no two county governments are exactly alike when it comes to emergency management.

      Regional governments are networks of local and county governments that address collective problems across numerous counties in rural or in large metroplex locations. For instance, there is a regional government representing the eight counties in the San Joaquin Valley as well as the Sacramento Area Council of Governments that is involved with cities in that general vicinity. These organizations focus on daily concerns (e.g., transportation and environmental issues) that affect multiple jurisdictions. However, regional governments also give attention to disasters and emergency management (Kapucu 2012; Gerber and Robinson 2009); Waugh 1994) and may be the conduit by which the federal government distributes grant monies for local governments. In fact, the federal government prefers to award grants to regional governments to avoid duplication of effort and unnecessary expenses. In return, regional governments are expected to share their resources (e.g., hazardous material teams or swift water rescue boats) with local jurisdictions in need when disasters occur.

      The North Central Texas Council of Governments (NCTCOG) is one example of a regional governmental organization that is interested in disasters. This particular network of jurisdictions attempts to strengthen local governments by assisting them in cooperative efforts across the Dallas/Fort Worth region. The NCTCOG has a department dedicated to regional disaster planning and coordination. The Emergency Preparedness Program provides leadership to facilitate collaboration across jurisdictions in this geographic area when disasters occur. Even though regional governments like NCTCOG have been around for decades, their importance remains underestimated in emergency management today.

      2.1.3 State Government

      State agencies are also heavily involved

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